Level 1. Ridges and Peaks

Level 1. Ridges and Peaks

On the summits and watershed ridges the following is determined:

direction of water flow;

distribution of precipitation on slopes;

the influence of wind on the transport of rain and snow;

areas of soil erosion;

ice crust formation zones;

first lines of runoff concentration;

potential sites for the onset of erosion.

Large water storage facilities cannot be created here. The main elements are:

restoration of low-growing resistant vegetation;

strips of shrubs;

stone ridges along the contour;

shallow infiltration cells;

rough surfaces;

wind-protective plantings;

protection of exposed areas.

The purpose of the upper level is to retain the first millimetres of precipitation and prevent the water from immediately turning into a fast, concentrated flow.

Level 2. Upper slopes

On the upper slopes the first distribution network is created:

contour ditches;

shallow terraces;

stone crescents;

forest belts;

infiltration trenches;

small differences;

microreservoirs;

soil restoration areas.

Each element must have a controlled overflow. Ditches without an overflow are dangerous: if overflowing, they can burst and create a new erosion channel.

Therefore, water is directed not into one long ditch, but into a system of short independent sections.

Level 3. Medium slopes

The middle slopes receive the already collected flow, so the following are calculated here:

catchment area above the structure;

rain intensity;

surface runoff coefficient;

concentration time;

flow rate;

sediment volume;

landslide risk;

soil stability after saturation with water.

The following are located here:

cascading terraces;

forest water-retaining belts;

rock-earth thresholds;

dry temporary storage pools;

bypass channels;

areas of directional grassing;

anti-landslide plantings.

The lower the structure is located, the larger its estimated water catchment area and the more serious the emergency spillway and protection against erosion must be.

Level 4. Lower slopes and foothills

At the bottom of the mountain, the stream begins to gather into large channels.

Here are created:

flood detention basins;

infiltration fields;

cascades of small dams;

mudflow arresting grates;

sediment trapping pools;

widened sections of the channel;

bypass flood channels;

protected areas where water flows into the valley.

The main mistake is trying to channel the entire flow through a single narrow channel. During an abnormal downpour, such a channel becomes a flood accelerator.

Therefore, the project provides for:

main channel;

reserve channel;

temporary flood plain;

emergency overflow;

safe flood zones.

Level 5. Valleys and floodplains

The valley must receive water that cannot be safely retained above.

It forms:

restored floodplains;

seasonal wetlands;

agricultural storage fields;

forest floodplain corridors;

reserve reservoirs;

groundwater recharge channels;

sludge sedimentation zones;

safe flood routes.

The floodplain is not considered "vacant land for development." It is part of the basin's hydraulic system.

Level 6. Lowlands and Coast

In the lowlands the following are combined:

flood protection;

accumulation of fresh water;

restoration of swamps;

salinization control;

drain cleaning;

protection of populated areas;

Contact AMCWSRI.

Here, the final volume of water that can come from all mountain sub-basins simultaneously is calculated.

Thus, AMCWSRI does not start at the sea, but on a mountain watershed.

3. Basic calculation chain

For each micro-catchment, a digital model is created:

Precipitation → interception losses by vegetation → infiltration → surface runoff → flow concentration → channel movement → temporary storage → input to lowlands

Minimum data set:

pool area;

height of the top and bottom points;

average and maximum slope;

length of the main stream;

pool shape;

soil types;

soil layer depth;

water permeability;

degree of saturation;

vegetation cover;

area of ​​rocks;

roads and development;

existing channels;

historical floods;

daily and hourly precipitation;

intensity of short showers;

wind direction and speed.

To assess the flood, not only the total volume of precipitation is taken into account, but alsoconcentration time— the period it takes for water from the most distant part of the basin to reach the reference point. This parameter is used when constructing flood hydrographs and calculating peak discharge.

4. Calculation of abnormal rainfalls

The project should not be calculated only on the basis of average long-term precipitation.

For each pool, at least five scenarios are created:

In this case, it is necessary to simulate different durations of rain:

15 minutes;

30 minutes;

1 hour;

3 hours;

6 hours;

12 hours;

24 hours;

several consecutive days.

A short downpour can create a higher local peak than a prolonged moderate rainfall. Prolonged rainfall, in turn, saturates the soil and sharply reduces its ability to absorb additional water.

Statistical relationships between intensity, duration, and exceedance probability are used for predicted storms. In HEC-HMS, for example, a frequency storm can be formed from precipitation of a specified duration and probability, including 24-hour rainfall with a 100-year return period.

However, the designation "100-year rainfall" doesn't mean it occurs strictly once per century. It's a statistical probability, and several such events can occur over a relatively short period.

5. Climate reserve coefficient

Historical data can no longer be used without adjustment.

The project includesclimatic reserve coefficient, which applies to:

precipitation intensity;

peak consumption;

volume of temporary accumulation;

overflow capacity;

the size of the floodplain;

strength of structures;

height reserve.

The size of the coefficient is determined for a specific region based on:

climate models;

observed change in extreme precipitation;

local statistics;

data uncertainties;

service life of the object.

The longer the object must operate, the larger the reserve must be.

For a temporary biotechnical structure, the reserve may be smaller. A dam, bridge, settlement, or main flood channel requires a significantly more conservative calculation.

WMO emphasizes the need to take into account changing patterns of extreme weather events and to apply regional climate information in risk management.

6. A series of showers and soil saturation

What is especially dangerous is not a single downpour, but the following sequence:

the first rain moistens the soil;

the second saturates the lower horizons;

the third is almost completely converted into surface runoff;

the slope loses stability;

stones, wood and soil fall into the stream;

the riverbeds are blocked;

After the ice jam is destroyed, a shock flood wave is formed.

Therefore, the digital model must take into account the initial soil moisture content.

The calculation is carried out for at least three states:

dry soil;

moist soil;

fully saturated soil.

All key structures are tested using a highly intensive scenario.

7. Wind accounting

Strong winds affect watersheds in several ways.

Transfer of sediments

Wind changes the actual distribution of rain:

windward slopes may receive more precipitation;

leeward zones - smaller;

localized bands of heavy rain are formed in the mountain passes;

Some of the rain is carried across the topographic divide line.

Therefore, the calculated precipitation cannot be distributed evenly over the entire area of ​​the basin.

Slanting rain

When there is a strong crosswind, the rain hits:

slopes;

terrace walls;

road embankments;

buildings;

open soil.

This increases localized slope failure and can direct water to locations not anticipated by the normal vertical precipitation model.

Tree falls

Once the soil is saturated, strong winds can uproot trees along with their root systems.

Consequences:

formation of open soil wounds;

blocking of riverbeds;

damage to terraces;

formation of tree jams;

sudden breakthrough waves.

Therefore, forest corridors should be designed as mixed in age, height and root architecture, rather than as uniform high plantings.

Wind erosion

On dry ridges and exposed slopes the wind:

removes small soil particles;

destroys mulch;

exposes the roots;

carries sand;

damages young plants;

accelerates evaporation.

Therefore, water restoration must be combined with a wind protection system.

8. Combined scenario: "rain + wind"

The most dangerous model includes simultaneously:

saturated soil;

abnormal downpour;

gusty wind;

tree felling;

blocking of the channel;

landslide;

mudflow;

disconnection of roads and communications.

For such a scenario the following are designed:

independent emergency overflows;

self-cleaning bridge spans;

widening of riverbeds in front of populated areas;

timber collection sites;

mudflow barriers;

backup evacuation routes;

autonomous sensors;

duplicated communication.

9. Cascade water control

The key principle of DREVO:

No single structure should take on the entire flow of a watershed.

Water is distributed in a cascade.

First cascade - peaks

Interception, roughness, vegetation.

Second cascade - upper slopes

Infiltration cells and short contour systems.

The third cascade is the middle slopes.

Terraces, forest belts and temporary storage facilities.

The fourth cascade - ravines and streams

Thresholds, channel widening and sediment traps.

The fifth cascade is the foothills

Large detention basins and infiltration fields.

The sixth cascade is floodplains.

Safe seasonal flooding and restoration of wetlands.

The Seventh Cascade is the coast.

Final regulation, cleaning, accumulation and protection from salinization.

10. Dual-use objects

Each element must work both in normal times and during extreme events.

11. Roads as part of the watershed system

Mountain roads often become artificial canals.

They can:

intercept natural slope runoff;

concentrate water;

direct the flow into one ravine;

wash away embankments;

initiate landslides;

destroy the underlying settlements.

Therefore, each road is included in the catchment model.

The following are being designed:

frequent water drainage points;

scattering releases;

fortified ditches;

bridges instead of small pipes in dangerous channels;

emergency overflows through low-lying areas;

protection against clogging by wood and stones.

FAO specifically addresses the erosion of road slopes, embankments and the need to include roads in watershed management and slope stabilisation measures.

12. DREVO Watershed Digital Twin

A digital twin is created for each watershed.

It unites:

digital elevation model;

sub-basins;

micro-catchments;

soils;

vegetation;

water permeability;

springs;

riverbed;

roads;

bridges;

dams;

populated areas;

meteorological data;

sensor data;

satellite images;

weather forecast;

abnormal precipitation scenarios.

The model shows:

where will the water go;

how long will it take for it to reach the valley;

where the maximum speed will be formed;

which structures will be overcrowded;

where a landslide is possible;

which roads will be cut off;

which lowlands will be flooded;

where urgent intervention is required.

13. Living Mountain Observatory

The watershed observation network includes:

automatic rain gauges;

weather stations at different altitudes;

wind direction and speed sensors;

soil moisture meters;

piezometers;

spring level gauges;

stream flow meters;

channel chambers;

ground motion sensors;

geophones;

tree tilt sensors;

radar observation of precipitation;

satellite monitoring;

the DREVO AeroSense drone.

A hydrometric network must ensure not only the collection of data but also quality control, transmission, storage, and use of data for warning and management. The WMO considers these elements the foundation of a modern hydrological monitoring program.

14. Early warning system

The system sets danger levels.

Green level

Normal mode. Water is safely contained and flows through the system.

Yellow level

The soil is becoming saturated, small storage tanks are close to filling up.

Orange level

The expected capacity will be exceeded and backup zones will be activated.

Red level

High probability of flood, landslide, mudflow or destruction of structures.

Black level

An actual breakthrough, a large mudflow or cascading destruction.

For small mountain basins, rapid warning is especially important, as flash floods can develop in a very short time. The WMO Global Flash Flood Alert System is built specifically around rapid threat assessment in small catchments.

15. Calculation priority

The work begins not with choosing a place to plant trees, but with the sequence:

Determine the lines of the main watersheds.

Divide the territory into sub-basins.

Identify micro-catchments.

Construct directions of surface runoff.

Determine the concentration time.

Calculate normal and extreme hydrographs.

Identify critical channels.

Identify landslide and mudflow zones.

Find safe areas for temporary flooding.

Calculate the retention cascade.

Check the cascade for sequential failure.

Only after this should forests, terraces, roads, reservoirs and settlements be placed.

16. Principle of safe failure

It must be assumed that any structure may one day become overcrowded, damaged or blocked.

Therefore, for each element the following is determined in advance:

where will the water go after overflowing;

what will happen during destruction;

will the flow not be directed towards the people;

will the next element of the cascade withstand it?

is there a workaround;

Is it possible to safely discharge the excess into the floodplain?

A proper system doesn't promise that nothing will ever collapse. It organizes the territory so that localized damage doesn't turn into catastrophic cascading destruction.

Final concept

DREVO Watershed Architecturebecomes the hydrological framework of the entire projectDREVO Living Mountains.

It unites:

Mountain Sponge;

Mountain Springs Recovery;

Mountain Terraces 2050;

Mountain Forest Corridors;

Mountain Digital Twin;

Mountain Biodiversity Atlas;

Living Mountain Observatory;

AMCWSRI;

the philosophy of the book "Restoration of the Earth".

The main principle:

Water is calculated from the first drop on the mountain ridge to the last zone of its accumulation in the lowland or outlet to the sea.

The mountain is considered not as a separate slope, but as the upper part of a single system:

ridge → catchment → spring → stream → river → valley → floodplain → coast → sea.

This approach allows us to simultaneously restore nature, increase water reserves, and protect areas from abnormal rainfall, winds, floods, erosion, mudflows, and landslides.

Level 1. Ridges and Peaks

Upper zone of water flow formation

Ridges, peaks, and upper watersheds are the starting point of the entire mountain hydrological system. It is here that precipitation first contacts the earth's surface and is distributed between adjacent slopes, valleys, and river basins.

Any fault at the upper level gradually worsens further down the slope. A small furrow turns into a gulch, a gulch into a ravine, and a ravine can form a mudflow or flood channel.

Therefore, restoration of the catchment area begins not in the valley or near the river, but directly at the watershed line.

The main objective of this level is:

Accept the first water, reduce its speed, distribute the flow and prevent early concentration of the runoff.

1. Function of ridges and vertices

A mountain ridge divides precipitation between two or more drainage basins.

Even a small change in the surface can affect:

which slope will the water flow to;

where the surface runoff will begin;

which pool will receive the largest volume;

where the first erosion channels will appear;

which springs will be fed;

where moisture deficit will occur;

in which direction snow, rain, dust and seeds will be transported.

The upper part of the mountain performs several functions at once:

distributes water between slopes;

takes the brunt of the wind;

holds snow;

forms the initial soil moisture;

protects lower slopes from accelerated flow;

serves as the starting point for forest and ecological corridors;

determines the stability of the entire underlying system.

2. Main types of upper zones

Ridges and peaks cannot be considered as a single, homogeneous area. They are divided into several types.

2.1. Sharp rocky ridge

Features:

very thin soil layer;

open rock surface;

strong wind;

fast water drainage;

high temperature amplitude;

limited vegetation.

It is not possible to build large earth structures or retain significant volumes of water here.

Key measures:

protection of natural cracks with vegetation;

small stone microbarriers;

consolidation of local soil pockets;

restoration of mosses, lichens and low shrubs;

prohibition of heavy machinery;

preserving the natural flow path.

2.2. Wide watershed plateau

Features:

relatively small slope;

the possibility of temporary water accumulation;

deeper soils;

risk of over-watering of certain areas;

strong wind impact;

the possibility of forming raised bogs and wet meadows.

The following may be placed here:

shallow infiltration bowls;

contour stone lines;

wet meadow areas;

small seasonal reservoirs;

snow retention strips;

protective shrub corridors.

2.3. Rounded top

At the rounded peaks the water spreads out in a fan shape.

The danger is that damage to the vegetation can cause multiple parallel erosion lines.

Key solutions:

radial-contour water distribution;

mosaic vegetation restoration;

microterrace;

protection of the areas most exposed to the wind;

creation of small soil pockets;

restoration of the turf layer.

2.4. Saddle between peaks

Saddles often become places of concentration:

winds;

snow;

fog;

surface water;

roads and paths;

animal movements.

Through the saddle, water can pass from one basin to another.

Therefore, it is necessary to determine here especially precisely:

natural watershed line;

soil depth;

direction of water movement;

probability of snow accumulation;

risk of water breakthrough after heavy rain;

influence of roads and paths.

Small storage elements are allowed in the saddles, but they must have a safe overflow.

2.5. Upper bowl-shaped depression

Such areas collect water already close to the summit.

They can be:

the beginning of the stream;

spring recharge zone;

seasonal swamp;

place of landslide formation;

the starting point of the mudflow.

Here, it is impossible to deepen reservoirs or increase soil saturation without control.

You need to check first:

geological structure;

the presence of a waterproof layer;

direction of underground water movement;

stability of the lower slope;

the presence of old landslide bodies.

3. Initial survey of the territory

Before designing the upper zone, a detailed map is created.

Required data

For each section the following are recorded:

absolute height;

relative height above the valley;

apex shape;

ridge direction;

surface slope;

slope exposure;

direction of prevailing winds;

soil depth;

stoniness;

water permeability;

the presence of permafrost or seasonally freezing areas;

vegetation cover;

traces of erosion;

animal trails;

roads;

tourist routes;

traces of fires;

places where snow accumulates;

springs and wet areas.

Survey methods

Used:

satellite images;

digital elevation model;

LiDAR;

drone photogrammetry;

spectral survey;

thermal imaging;

geological survey;

manual soil drilling;

infiltration tests;

wind measurements;

snow measurement observations;

historical maps;

survey of the local population.

Drone surveys must be complemented by ground surveys. Satellite maps can show the relief, but they cannot reliably determine soil stability, crack depth, or root condition.

4. Working with water on the ridges

At the top level, it is impossible to create a system that completely blocks the drain.

It is necessary to work with the first small volumes of water.

Basic steps

Interception

Some of the water is retained by vegetation, stones, litter and microrelief.

Diffusion

The collected flow is distributed over a wider surface.

Slowing down

The surface is made rougher so that the water loses speed.

Infiltration

Water gradually penetrates the soil, but without dangerous oversaturation of the slopes.

Safe overflow

Water that cannot be contained is directed to a pre-determined safe zone.

5. Micronutrients for water retention

At the summits, small, scattered structures are predominantly used.

5.1 Stone contour lines

Low lines of local stone are arranged approximately horizontally.

They:

slow down the water;

retain soil particles;

create wet streaks;

help plants to take hold;

reduce wind erosion.

The rock line should not become a continuous dam. Controlled gaps for overflow should be maintained within it.

5.2. Stone crescents

Semicircular structures open towards the water inlet.

Inside are planted:

shrubs;

herbs;

resistant trees;

pioneer plants.

The crescent collects a small volume of water and sediment around a single plant or group of plants.

5.3. Infiltration pockets

Small depressions are created only where the soil is sufficiently stable.

They are filled in:

wood chips;

branches;

stone;

plant residues;

coarse compost.

The pocket should not turn into a deep hole where water can stand for a long time and weaken the slope.

5.4. Microterraces

Short terraces, a few metres long, are created around existing plants or in restoration areas.

They do not connect into one long continuous line.

Each micro terrace must:

work independently;

have a limited volume;

safe to overflow;

do not transmit the shock flow to the adjacent area.

5.5. Wood and branch fellings

After sanitary clearing, branches and trunks can be laid across weak slope runoff.

They:

retain organic matter;

protect the soil;

create a microclimate;

reduce wind speed;

become the basis for the formation of new soil.

Large tree trunks must be secured so that during heavy rain they are not carried down and block the riverbed.

6. Soil restoration

On many peaks, the problem is not a lack of rain, but the inability of the soil to absorb and retain water.

Reasons:

trampling;

overgrazing;

fire;

loss of organic layer;

wind erosion;

movement of equipment;

mountain roads;

tourist load;

uniform plantings;

destruction of soil biota.

Recovery measures

grazing restrictions;

temporary closure of damaged areas;

application of local organic matter;

restoration of plant litter;

sowing of local grasses;

protection of bare soil;

use of biochar in limited quantities;

restoration of fungal and bacterial communities;

planting pioneer plants;

formation of mosaic vegetation.

The topsoil should not be completely loosened over a large area. Deep loosening can accelerate erosion and increase water penetration into unstable geological layers.

7. Vegetation of ridges

Vegetation must be appropriate to the local climate and altitude.

Basic principle:

First, low and stable vegetation is restored, then shrubs, and only after that – trees where they can naturally exist.

First tier

mosses;

lichens;

low grasses;

ground cover plants;

turf-forming species.

Their purpose is to cover the soil and reduce the impact of rain and wind.

Second tier

low shrubs;

creeping forms;

thorny protective plants;

nitrogen-fixing species.

They provide shelter for other plants.

Third tier

tall shrubs;

small wind-resistant trees;

local forest groups.

Tall trees should not be planted in a continuous strip on the wind-damaged ridge itself. This increases the risk of windthrow.

8. Wind-resistant architecture

The upper level is both a water and a wind system.

Tasks

reduce surface wind speed;

hold back the snow;

retain moisture;

protect young plants;

reduce soil transfer;

do not create dangerous turbulence.

The correct protective strip

It should be:

semipermeable;

multi-tiered;

heterogeneous;

consisting of local species;

divided into sections;

resistant to fire and windfall.

A completely dense green wall creates strong vortices on the downwind side, which maintains a certain permeability between the plants.

9. Accounting for abnormal winds

For the upper zones the following are modeled:

constant prevailing winds;

seasonal storm winds;

gusty crosswind;

winds accompanying thunderstorm fronts;

downward flows;

mountain-valley circulation;

transport of rain across a watershed;

snow transfer;

dust storms;

fire winds.

The combination of saturated soil and strong winds is especially dangerous. Roots become unstable, and trees can fall, carrying large chunks of soil.

10. Snow as part of the drainage system

In cold and high mountain regions, snow is considered as a seasonal reservoir.

On the ridges it is necessary to determine:

blowing zones;

accumulation zones;

cornices;

avalanche-prone areas;

rate of spring melting;

the effect of warm rain on snow;

possible soil freezing;

direction of melt runoff.

Snow retention

Applicable:

low shrub strips;

stone lines;

wooden gratings;

mosaic vegetation;

protection of natural snow pockets.

Large snow accumulations should not be created over unstable slopes or infrastructure.

11. Fog, dew and horizontal precipitation

On some ridges, fog and clouds provide more available moisture than direct rain.

Vegetation is able to capture droplets of fog, after which the water flows away:

on the leaves;

along the trunks;

in the litter;

into the soil.

In suitable places you can use:

mist eliminators;

mesh panels;

stone condensation surfaces;

plants with high moisture-absorbing capacity;

small tanks.

The structures must be able to withstand storm winds and not pose a danger to birds.

12. Abnormal rainfall at the summit

For each upper micro-catchment, a scenario is calculated in which:

the soil is already saturated;

a heavy downpour begins;

a strong crosswind is blowing;

some of the water is transferred to one slope;

micro-terraces fill up quickly;

individual stone lines are damaged;

a concentrated flow arises.

The system is considered safe if, after overflow:

water does not create a new ravine;

there is no cascading destruction;

the stream flows into a stable hollow;

the overflow is not directed onto the road or building;

the lower level is capable of accepting additional volume.

13. Emergency water routes

The following are marked on the map in advance:

natural flow directions;

stable rocky areas;

grassy spillways;

upper troughs;

secure channels;

Prohibited directions;

risk zones for people and infrastructure.

It is prohibited to place the following on the emergency route:

buildings;

tanks containing hazardous substances;

power equipment;

tourist sites;

warehouses;

roads without culverts.

14. Roads and trails on the ridges

Ridge roads are particularly dangerous because they can artificially change the distribution of water between basins.

The road can:

intercept water from one slope;

direct it to another;

collect the flow in a rut;

destroy the saddle;

create a new ravine;

disrupt the spring's supply.

Requirements

minimum width;

controlled cross slope;

frequent points of water dispersion;

lack of a long continuous ditch;

reinforced releases;

restriction of heavy transport;

restoration of temporary construction roads;

constant monitoring after heavy rains.

15. Grazing animals

Moderate grazing can maintain a mosaic vegetation structure, but overgrazing destroys the upper zone.

Signs of overexertion:

bare soil;

compaction;

deep paths;

destruction of sources;

disappearance of young bushes;

predominance of non-productive species;

formation of concentrated flows along paths.

Applicable:

rotational grazing;

seasonal restrictions;

closed recovery areas;

transfer of watering places;

protection of wet areas;

animal population control.

16. Fire resistance

A fire in a watershed dramatically changes the behavior of water.

After the fire:

the plant interception disappears;

the surface can become water-repellent;

the flow rate increases;

the volume of sediment increases;

the risk of mudflows increases;

the roots are damaged;

wind erosion increases.

Therefore, the project includes:

mosaic plantings;

fire breaks;

low-flammability types;

controlled removal of dry matter;

reserve access roads;

water points;

thunderstorm monitoring;

special post-fire recovery plan.

After a major fire, the upper catchment area should be surveyed before the rain season begins.

17. Prohibited decisions

On ridges and peaks it is impossible without special calculations:

build large dams;

create deep reservoirs;

to lay long continuous ditches;

completely block the natural flow;

loosen the soil en masse;

plant continuous rows of tall trees;

use heavy equipment on wet soil;

direct water to landslide slopes;

connect all microsystems into one channel;

create structures without emergency overflow.

18. Summit monitoring system

The following are installed at key sites:

weather stations;

rain gauges;

anemometers;

wind gust sensors;

soil moisture meters;

temperature sensors;

snow measuring rods;

cameras;

ground motion sensors;

tree tilt sensors;

control erosion benchmarks.

Observations are supplemented by regular drone overflights.

A special examination is carried out:

after an abnormal downpour;

after a strong wind;

after the fire;

after rapid snowmelt;

after the earthquake;

after new cracks appear.

19. Digital passport of the upper zone

Each site receives a digital passport.

It contains:

identifier;

coordinates;

altitude range;

square;

belonging to a catchment area;

relief type;

geological;

soils;

vegetation;

wind direction;

amount of precipitation;

snow load;

state of erosion;

completed activities;

condition of structures;

photographs;

monitoring results;

risk level;

service plan.

20. Performance indicators

The success of restoration is assessed not by the number of trees planted, but by the change in the functioning of the area.

Key indicators:

reduction of the proportion of bare soil;

increase in vegetation cover;

reduction in the rate of surface runoff;

reduction in the number of new gullies;

accumulation of fine soil behind stone lines;

increasing soil moisture;

increase in the duration of snow cover;

reduction of wind erosion;

restoration of native species;

reduction in sediment volume downslope;

absence of cascading destruction after heavy rains.

21. Sequence of implementation

Step 1. Mapping

Identification of watersheds, micro-watersheds, wind zones and emergency overflow routes.

Stage 2. Protection

Restriction of grazing, transport, construction and other destructive impacts.

Stage 3. Stabilization

Fixation of exposed areas, gullies, paths and local erosion centers.

Stage 4. Soil restoration

Return of the organic layer and soil biota.

Stage 5. Micro-water retention

Creating scattered stone lines, crescents and pockets.

Stage 6. Vegetation restoration

First grasses and groundcover plants, then shrubs and suitable trees.

Stage 7. Monitoring

Testing the system's operation under normal and extreme precipitation conditions.

Step 8. Adjustment

Removing ineffective elements, strengthening weak areas and changing flow paths.

Level 1 Summary Principle

The ridge should not be converted into a large reservoir or artificial dam.

Its task is to gently accept precipitation, preserve the soil, distribute water between the slopes and transfer excess volume to the next level without destruction.

Correctly restored peak:

covered with stable mosaic vegetation;

holds back the first millimetres of rain;

slows down the wind at the surface;

accumulates snow without creating a hazard;

does not form concentrated streams;

nourishes the soil and underground horizons;

safely passes extreme excess water;

protects the entire pool below.

The ridge and summit are the first line of control over water, wind, soil and life of the entire mountain system.