Scheme of a natural mixed forest of temperate Europe

Below is a diagram that closely resembles the principles of a natural mixed forest in temperate Europe. The composition should be adapted to the specific site (soil, climate, humidity, region).

Priority	Type of tree	Share in mature forest	Lifespan	Main function	Root system	Impact on soil	Light under the crown	Benefits for animals	Main risks
⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐	Oak	30–40%	500–1000+ years	Ecosystem framework	Very deep	Average, stable	Middle shadow	Very high	Slow growth
⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐	Ash tree	10–20%	150–250 years	Rapid soil restoration	Deep	Very strong improvement	Light crown	Very high	Ash tree dieback in Europe
⭐⭐⭐⭐☆	Linden	10–15%	300–700 years	Honey bear, microclimate	Deep	Very good	Middle shadow	Very high	Requires sufficient moisture
⭐⭐⭐⭐☆	Maple	10–15%	200–400 years	Humus, moisture retention	Average	Very good	Average	High	Can actively self-seed
⭐⭐⭐⭐☆	Hornbeam	5–10%	200–350 years	Lower tier, soil protection	Strong	Good	Dense shadow	High	Slow growth
⭐⭐⭐⭐☆	Elm	5–10%	200–500 years	Strengthening slopes	Very powerful	Good	Average	High	Dutch elm disease
⭐⭐⭐⭐☆	Alder	5–10%	80–150 years	Enriching the soil with nitrogen	Average	Exceptionally strong	Light	High	Short-lived
⭐⭐⭐☆☆	Birch	5–10%	80–150 years	Initial development of the site	Average	Good	Very light	Average	Short lifespan
⭐⭐⭐☆☆	Iva	In damp places	60–150 years	Coastal protection	Very powerful	Good	Light	Very high	Wood fragility

Second tier (small trees)

View	Function
Rowan	Bird food
Cherry tree	Pollinators and birds
Wild apple tree	Fruits for animals
Wild pear	Genetic reserve, feed
Yew	Evergreen layer, shelters (toxic to many animals, except some birds)

Shrubs

View	Main benefit
Hazelnut	Nuts, squirrels, birds
Hawthorn	Flowers for insects, berries
Viburnum	Bird food
Elderberry	Support for insects and birds
Rose hip	Fruits, protection of the young forest
Honeysuckle	Early nectar
Buckthorn	A food plant for some butterflies

Grass cover

Wild strawberry

Medunica

Vetrenica

Wild leek

Bells

Yarrow

Thyme

St. John's wort

Valerian

Clover

Alfalfa

Ferns

Mushrooms

White mushroom

Birch boletus

Sinusitis

Chanterelles

The Opium

Russula

Dairy farmers

Tinder fungi (important for processing dead wood)

General planting scheme

Stage	What is being planted?
1	Birch, alder, and willow quickly cover the area and improve conditions
2	Ash, linden, and maple actively increase soil fertility.
3	Oak, elm, and hornbeam form the durable structure of the forest.
4	Rowan, forest fruit trees, and shrubs increase biodiversity
5	Forest grasses, mosses, and mushrooms complete the formation of a sustainable ecosystem.

Forest model in 200–300 years

If we imagine a forest as a single organism, it can be divided as follows:

35%- oak (durable frame).

15%- ash (fertility and light).

15%- linden (pollinators and microclimate).

10%— maple (humus and moisture).

10%- hornbeam (lower tree layer).

5%- elm (slope stability and diversity).

5%- alder (wet areas and soil restoration).

5%- birch, willow, rowan and other local species.

Such a forest is usually more resilient to diseases, pests, droughts and extreme weather events than monocultures, as different species perform complementary ecological functions.